For real evidence of a unique item, what is the foundation?

• A. Personal knowledge of the witness.
• B. Chain of custody.
• C. A notarized certificate.
• D. An inventory log.

Answer: (A)

Authentication of real evidence rests on showing the object is the exact item involved in the case. For a real item that is unique, the strongest foundation is the witness’s personal knowledge—their firsthand identification of the object and testimony linking it to the events or parties in question. This direct knowledge proves the item’s identity without relying on secondary documents.

Chain of custody is important when there’s a risk the item could be substituted or tampered with and there isn’t a clear eyewitness to identify it, but for a uniquely identifiable item, the witness’s own identification typically suffices to establish authenticity. A notarized certificate or an inventory log may accompany the evidence, but they do not by themselves provide the foundational authentication that the item is the very one involved in the case.